Table 1 Characteristics of prospective cohort studies of red and processed meat and prostate cancer a
Author, year | Study cohort (Country) | No. of subjects (No. of cases) | Age range (mean) | Year baseline diet assessed | Follow up, years | Meat exposures analyzed | Prostate cancer outcome | Statistical adjustments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Agalliu et al, 2011 [13] | Canadian Study of Diet, Lifestyle and Health (Canada) | 1864 (661) | 69.3 (10.5) [mean (SD) controls]; 66.2 (8.4) [mean (SD) cases] | 1995–1998 | 8 | Red meat | All PCa; nonadvanced PCa; advanced PCa | Age at baseline, race, BMI, exercise activity, and education |
Allen et al, 2004 [29] | Life Span Study Cohort (Japan) | 18,119 (196) | 51–89 | 1979–1980 | 16.9 [mean] | Pork | All PCa | Age, calendar period, city of residence, radiation dose and education level |
Allen et al, 2008 [30] | EPIC (Europe) | 142,241 (2727) | 52 [median] | 1989–2004 | 18 | Red meat; processed meat | All PCa | Study center, education, marital status, height, weight, and energy intake |
Cross et al, 2005 [47] | PLCO (US) | 29,361 (1338) | 55–74 | 1993–2001 | 11 | Red meat; processed meat | Total PCa; incident PCa; advanced PCa | Age, race, study center, fam hx, history of diabetes, number of screening exams during follow-up, smoking status, physical activity, aspirin use, BMI, and intake of total energy, supplemental vitamin E, and lycopene |
Gann et al, 1994 [32] | PHS (US) | 240 (120) | 40–84 | 1982 | 6 | Beef, pork, or lamb as a main dish | All PCa | None reported |
Hsing et al, 1990 [33] | LBC (US) | 17,633 (149) | ≥35 | 1966 | 20 | Red meat (processed and unprocessed) | Fatal PCa | Age, tobacco use |
Koutros et al, 2008 [34] | AHS (US) | 23,080 (668) | 48.3 [mean] | 1993–1997 | 10 | Red meat; pork chops/ham steaks; beef steaks; hamburgers; bacon/sausage | Total PCa; incident PCa; advanced PCa | Age, state of residence, race, fam hx, and smoking status |
Le Marchand et al, 1994 [35] | Hawaiian State Department of Health (US) | 8881 (198) | ≥18 | 1975–1980 | 14 | Pork; beef | Total PCa; localized stage PCa; regional and distant stage PCa | Age, ethnicity, and income |
Major et al, 2011 [19] | NIH-AARP (US) | 7949 (1089) (Blacks only) | 50–71 | 1995–1996 | 11 | Red meat; processed meat | Total PCa; Advanced PCa | Age, education, marital status, fam hx, hx of diabetes, smoking, health status, BMI, alcohol, fruit intakes |
Michaud et al, 2001 [36] | HPFS (US) | 47,780 (1987) | 40–75 | 1986 | 10 | Red meat; beef, pork, lamb (main dish); beef, pork, lamb (sandwich or mixed dish); hamburger, processed meat (sausage, salami, bologna); bacon; hot dogs | Total PCa, Advanced PCa | Age, calories, calcium, smoking, tomato use, vigorous exercise, saturated and alpha linolenic fat |
Mills et al, 1989 [37] | Seventh Day Adventists (US) | 14,000 (180) | ≥25 | 1976 | 6 | Beef hamburger; beef steak; other beef and veal; beef index | All PCa | Age |
Neuhouser et al, 2007 [38] | CAROT (US) | 12,000 (890) | 50–69 | 1989 | 11 [mean] | Red meat | Total PCa; aggressive PCa; nonaggressive PCa | Age, energy intake, BMI, smoking, fam hx, and race/ethnicity |
Park et al, 2007 [39] | Multiethnic Cohort (US) | 82,483 (4404) | ≥45 | 1993–1996 | 8 | Red meat; beef; pork; processed meat | Total PCa; non-localized or high grade PCa; | Time on study, ethnicity, family history of prostate cancer, education, BMI, smoking status and energy intake |
Richman et al, 2011 [15] | HPFS (US) | 27,607 (199) | 40–75 | 1986 | 22 | Total red meat (processed and unprocessed); unprocessed red meat; processed red meat | Lethal PCa | Age, energy, BMI, smoking, vigorous activity, and lycopene intake |
Rodriguez et al, 2006 [40] | Cancer Prevention Study II (US) | 65,590 (5113) | 50–74 | 1992 | 9 | Total red meat (processed and unprocessed); unprocessed red meat; | All PCa; metastatic PCa | Age at entry, total calorie intake, BMI, level of education, fam hx, history of PSA testing, and hx of diabetes |
Rohrmann et al, 2007 [41] | CLUE II (US) | 3892 (199) | ≥35 | 1989 | 15 | Red meat (processed and unprocessed); beef; pork; processed meats; sausages; bacon; ham/lunchmeat; hot dogs | Total PCa; low-stage PCa; high-stage PCa | Age, energy intake, consumption of tomato products, BMI at age 21, and intake of saturated fat |
Schuurman et al, 1999 [42] | NLCS (Netherlands) | 2167 (642) | 55–69 | 1986 | 6.3 | Beef; pork; minced meat (beef and pork); boiled ham; bacon | Total PCa; localized tumors; advanced tumors | Age, fam hx, and socioeconomic status |
Severson et al, 1989 [43] | Hawaiian Men of Japanese Ancestry (US) | 7998 (174) | 46–65 | 1965–1968 | 21 | Ham, bacon, sausage | Total PCa | Age |
Sinha et al, 2009 [44] | NIH-AARP (US) | 175,343 (10,313) | 50–71 | 1995–1996 | 8 | Red meat (processed and unprocessed); processed meat | Total PCa; advanced PCa; fatal PCa | Age, total energy intake, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, undergoing prostate-specific antigen testing in the past 3 years, hx of diabetes, BMI, smoking history, frequency of vigorous physical activity, and intakes of alcohol, calcium, tomatoes, alpha-linolenic acid, vitamin E, zinc, and selenium |
Veierod et al, 1997 [45] | Norwegian men 1977–1983 (Norway) | 25,708 (72) | 16–56 | 1977–1983 | 15 | Main meals with hamburgers, meatballs, etc. | Total PCa | Age at inclusion and attained age |
Wright et al, 2012 [14] | ATBC (Finland) | 27,111 (1929) | 50–69 | 1985–1988 | 21 | Red meat; beef; sausages | All PCa; advanced PCa | Age, energy intake, smoking dose and duration, trial intervention assignment, education level, and dietary fat intake |
Wu et al, 2006 [28] | HPFS | 47,725 (3002) | 40–75 | 1986 | 14 | Total red meat, processed meat | Advanced PCa | Age, height, smoking, family history of prostate cancer, race, history of vasectomy, vigorous exercise, body mass index, alcohol intake, and total energy intake |