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Table 3 Multivariate-adjusted ORs for the presence of inadequate nutrient intake (based on EAR and DG) compared with the meeting EAR and DG for frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home among 2221 Japanese adults aged 18–64 years

From: Consumption of meals prepared away from home is associated with inadequacy of dietary fiber, vitamin C and mineral intake among Japanese adults: analysis from the 2015 National Health and Nutrition Survey

 

Men

Women

Frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home

Frequency of consuming meals prepared away from home

Low

(n = 321)

Moderate

(n = 465)

High

(n = 135)

Low

(n = 608)

Moderate

(n = 610)

High

(n = 82)

Nutrients with EAR

 Protein, n, %

3

0.9

2

0.4

0

0

3

0.2

0

0

0

0

  Crude OR (95% CI)

–

–

–

–

–

–

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

–

–

–

–

–

–

Vitamins

 Vitamin A, n, %

216

67.3

289

62.2

100

74.1

325

53.5

325

53.3

48

58.5

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.80 (0.59–1.08)

1.39 (0.89–2.18)

1.00 (Reference)

0.99 (0.79–1.24)

1.23 (0.77–1.96)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.81 (0.60–1.10)

1.41 (0.88–2.24)

1.00 (Reference)

0.97 (0.77–1.22)

1.18 (0.73–1.90)

 Vitamin B1, n, %

197

61.4

288

61.9

96

71.1

362

59.5

362

59.3

43

52.4

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.02 (0.76–1.37)

1.55 (1.00–2.39)

1.00 (Reference)

0.99 (0.80–1.25)

0.75 (0.47–1.19)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (0.74–1.34)

1.44 (0.92–2.25)

1.00 (Reference)

1.01 (0.80–1.27)

0.77 (0.48–1.23)

 Vitamin B2, n, %

136

42.4

182

39.1

70

51.9

178

29.3

173

28.4

25

30.5

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.88 (0.66–1.17)

1.47 (0.98–2.19)

1.00 (Reference)

0.96 (0.75–1.23)

1.06 (0.64–1.75)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.86 (0.64–1.16)

1.46 (0.96–2.22)

1.00 (Reference)

0.92 (0.71–1.18)

1.00 (0.60–1.66)

 Niacin, n, %

1

0.3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

  Crude OR (95% CI)

–

–

–

–

–

–

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

–

–

–

–

–

–

 Vitamin B6, n, %

107

33.3

154

33.1

59

43.7

212

34.9

221

36.2

32

39.0

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.99 (0.73–1.34)

1.55 (1.03–2.34)

1.00 (Reference)

1.06 (0.84–1.34)

1.20 (0.74–1.92)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.95 (0.70–1.30)

1.36 (0.88–2.09)

1.00 (Reference)

1.04 (0.82–1.32)

1.17 (0.72–1.90)

 Vitamin B12, n, %

46

14.3

53

11.4

18

13.3

138

22.7

123

20.2

17

20.7

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.77 (0.50–1.17)

0.92 (0.51–1.65)

1.00 (Reference)

0.86 (0.65–1.13)

0.89 (0.51–1.57)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.75 (0.49–1.15)

0.85 (0.46–1.56)

1.00 (Reference)

0.82 (0.62–1.07)

0.76 (0.43–1.36)

 Folate, n, %

26

8.1

46

9.9

20

14.8

78

12.8

85

13.9

18

22.0

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.25 (0.75–2.06)

1.97 (1.06–3.67)

1.00 (Reference)

1.10 (0.79–1.53)

1.91 (1.08–3.39)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.15 (0.69–1.93)

1.65 (0.87–3.16)

1.00 (Reference)

1.03 (0.74–1.45)

1.80 (1.00–3.27)

 Vitamin C, n, %

153

47.7

217

46.7

79

58.5

258

42.4

296

48.5

48

58.5

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.96 (0.72–1.28)

1.55 (1.03–2.33)

1.00 (Reference)

1.28 (1.02–1.60)

1.92 (1.20–3.06)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.87 (0.65–1.17)

1.25 (0.82–1.92)

1.00 (Reference)

1.20 (0.95–1.52)

1.72 (1.05–2.80)

Minerals

 Calcium, n, %

189

58.9

267

57.4

91

67.4

327

53.8

364

59.7

52

63.4

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.94 (0.70–1.26)

1.44 (0.95–2.21)

1.00 (Reference)

1.27 (1.01–1.60)

1.49 (0.93–2.40)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.93 (0.69–1.26)

1.42 (0.91–2.20)

1.00 (Reference)

1.24 (0.98–1.56)

1.44 (0.88–2.35)

 Magnesium, n, %

156

48.6

225

48.4

76

56.3

222

36.5

263

43.1

34

41.5

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.99 (0.75–1.32)

1.36 (0.91–2.04)

1.00 (Reference)

1.32 (1.05–1.66)

1.23 (0.77–1.97)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.99 (0.74–1.33)

1.27 (0.83–1.93)

1.00 (Reference)

1.31 (1.03–1.65)

1.22 (0.75–1.98)

 Iron, n, %

23

7.2

26

5.6

19

14.1

237

39.0

270

44.3

44

53.7

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.77 (0.43–1.37)

2.12 (1.11–4.04)

1.00 (Reference)

1.24 (0.99–1.56)

1.81 (1.14–2.88)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.75 (0.41–1.36)

2.03 (1.03–4.01)

1.00 (Reference)

1.13 (0.84–1.51)

1.35 (0.74–2.46)

 Zinc, n, %

24

7.5

42

9.0

14

10.4

36

5.9

26

4.3

7

8.5

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.23 (0.73–2.07)

1.43 (0.72–2.86)

1.00 (Reference)

0.71 (0.42–1.19)

1.48 (0.64–3.45)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.24 (0.72–2.13)

1.57 (0.75–3.29)

1.00 (Reference)

0.63 (0.37–1.08)

1.22 (0.50–2.99)

 Copper, n, %

0

0

2

0.4

1

0.7

2

0.3

3

0.5

0

0

  Crude OR (95% CI)

–

–

–

–

–

–

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

–

–

–

–

–

–

Nutrients with DG

 Protein, n, %

110

34.3

159

34.2

63

46.7

182

29.9

186

30.5

31

37.8

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (0.74–1.35)

1.68 (1.12–2.53)

1.00 (Reference)

1.03 (0.80–1.31)

1.42 (0.88–2.30)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.97 (0.72–1.32)

1.58 (1.03–2.40)

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (0.78–1.28)

1.30 (0.80–2.11)

 Fat, n, %

134

41.7

222

47.7

61

45.2

325

53.5

326

53.4

49

59.8

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.28 (0.96–1.70)

1.15 (0.77–1.73)

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (0.80–1.25)

1.29 (0.81–2.07)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.28 (0.96–1.71)

1.12 (0.74–1.71)

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (0.80–1.26)

1.31 (0.81–2.11)

 Saturated fat, n, %

121

37.7

200

43.0

59

43.7

338

55.6

361

59.2

46

56.1

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.25 (0.93–1.67)

1.28 (0.85–1.93)

1.00 (Reference)

1.16 (0.92–1.45)

1.02 (0.64–1.62)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.23 (0.91–1.65)

1.18 (0.77–1.80)

1.00 (Reference)

1.15 (0.91–1.44)

1.01 (0.63–1.61)

 Carbohydrate, n, %

121

37.7

167

35.9

43

31.9

219

36.0

204

33.4

32

39.0

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.93 (0.69–1.24)

0.70 (0.50–1.18)

1.00 (Reference)

0.89 (0.71–1.13)

1.14 (0.71–1.83)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.95 (0.70–1.28)

0.80 (0.52–1.25)

1.00 (Reference)

0.88 (0.69–1.11)

1.22 (0.75–1.98)

 Dietary fiber, n, %

211

65.7

319

68.6

107

79.3

399

65.6

440

72.1

60

73.2

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.14 (0.84–1.54)

1.99 (1.24–3.21)

1.00 (Reference)

1.36 (1.06–1.73)

1.43 (0.85–2.39)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.14 (0.83–1.56)

1.91 (1.17–3.12)

1.00 (Reference)

1.32 (1.03–1.69)

1.31 (0.77–2.23)

 Sodium (salt-equivalent), n, %

297

92.5

427

91.8

129

95.6

522

85.9

532

87.2

69

84.2

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.91 (0.53–1.55)

1.74 (0.69–4.35)

1.00 (Reference)

1.12 (0.81–1.56)

0.87 (0.46–1.65)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

0.95 (0.55–1.64)

1.88 (0.73–4.84)

1.00 (Reference)

1.11 (0.80–1.55)

0.86 (0.45–1.64)

 Potassium, n, %

202

62.9

305

65.6

107

79.3

348

57.2

383

62.8

49

59.8

  Crude OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.12 (0.84–1.51)

2.25 (1.40–3.62)

1.00 (Reference)

1.26 (1.00–1.59)

0.88 (0.55–1.41)

  Adjusted OR (95% CI)

1.00 (Reference)

1.13 (0.83–1.53)

2.17 (1.33–3.55)

1.00 (Reference)

1.23 (0.97–1.56)

1.01 (0.62–1.65)

  1. CI confidence interval, DG tentative dietary goal for preventing lifestyle-related disease, DRI Dietary Reference Intakes, EAR estimated average requirement, OR odd ratio
  2. Percentage of subjects whose intake was in the range of DG or above the EAR. Each energy-adjusted nutrient intake (units/day) was compared with each DRI value (units/day), using the cut-point method
  3. The probability of inadequacy > 50% for menstruating women whose bioavailability of iron is 15% (< 9.3 mg/d) was considered inadequate for women aged 20–49 years
  4. * Adjusted for confounding variables of age category (18–34, 35–50, and 51–64 years), occupation (professional / manager, sales / service / clerical, security / transportation / labour, student, housekeeper, and not in paid employment), living alone (yes or no), region (Hokkaido and Tohoku, Kanto, Hokuriku and Tokai, Kinki, Shikoku and Chugoku and Kyusyu), current smoker (yes or no) and habitual alcohol drinker (yes or no)
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