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Table 4 Association of maternal fruit and vegetable/vitamin C intake with infants’ weight and length from birth to 6 months

From: Maternal fruit and vegetable or vitamin C consumption during pregnancy is associated with fetal growth and infant growth up to 6 months: results from the Korean Mothers and Children’s Environmental Health (MOCEH) cohort study

Intake

Weight (kg)

Length (cm)

At birth

At 6 months

Birth to 6 months

At birth

At 6 months

Birth to 6 months

n

β (SE)/lsmean ± SD

p

n

β (SE)/lsmean ± SD

p

n

β (SE)/lsmean ± SD

p

n

β (SE)/lsmean ± SD

p

n

β (SE)/lsmean ± SD

p

n

β (SE)/lsmean ± SD

p

Fruit and vegetables

 Continues

  Unadjusted

1138

0.014 (0.017)

0.4295

741

−0.058 (0.058)

0.3150

1138

0.013 (0.017)

0.4609

1138

0.116 (0.101)

0.2471

740

0.073 (0.162)

0.6520

1138

0.120 (0.101)

0.2329

  Adjusteda

816

0.031 (0.020)

0.1182

559

−0.056 (0.064)

0.3848

639

0.054 (0.023)

0.0184

816

0.172 (0.119)

0.1479

558

−0.043 (0.189)

0.8214

639

0.170 (0.133)

0.2032

 Categoricala

   < median (519 g/d)

 

3.22 ± 0.03

0.0024

 

10.09 ± 0.11

0.6718

 

3.23 ± 0.04

0.0077

 

50.44 ± 0.20

0.1620

 

76.82 ± 0.34

0.5126

 

50.78 ± 0.22

0.2993

   ≥ median (519 g/d)

 

3.29 ± 0.03

  

10.12 ± 0.11

  

3.31 ± 0.04

  

50.65 ± 0.20

  

76.98 ± 0.32

  

50.95 ± 0.22

 

Vitamin C

 Continues

  Unadjusted

1138

0.015 (0.016)

0.3537

741

0.018 (0.053)

0.7344

1138

0.014 (0.016)

0.3941

1138

0.197 (0.092)

0.0333

740

0.231 (0.148)

0.1182

1138

0.202 (0.092)

0.0294

  Adjustedb

816

0.035 (0.019)

0.0677

559

0.017 (0.060)

0.7803

639

0.037 (0.021)

0.0808

816

0.314 (0.113)

0.0056

558

0.054 (0.178)

0.7624

639

0.289 (0.125)

0.0214

 Categoricalb

   < EAR (85 mg/d)

 

3.22 ± 0.04

0.0400

 

10.07 ± 0.12

0.4290

 

3.23 ± 0.04

0.0565

 

50.20 ± 0.21

0.0010

 

77.00 ± 0.36

0.7231

 

50.53 ± 0.24

0.0068

   ≥ EAR (85 mg/d)

 

3.28 ± 0.03

  

10.14 ± 0.11

  

3.29 ± 0.04

  

50.74 ± 0.19

  

76.90 ± 0.31

  

51.02 ± 0.21

 

ORs (95% CI) for low birth outcomes and low growth up to 6 months (<25th percentile)

 

Fruit and vegetables

  < median (519 g/d)

1.434 (1.001–2.056)

0.0494

0.863 (0.627–1.186)

0.3631

1.311 (0.939–1.829)

0.1117

1.316 (0.933–1.857)

0.1178

0.875 (0.636–1.204)

0.4126

1.152 (0.845–1.570)

0.3714

  ≥ median (519 g/d)

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

Vitamin C

  < EAR (85 mg/d)

1.470 (1.011–2.139)

0.0439

0.910 (0.645–1.284)

0.5916

1.520 (1.066–2.165)

0.0206

1.579 (1.104–2.258)

0.0124

1.182 (0.837–1.669)

0.3416

1.262 (0.900–1.770)

0.1773

  ≥ EAR (85 mg/d)

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 

1 (ref)

 
  1. β value is the coefficient from the multiple regression analysis
  2. Least squares means (lsmeans) is a mean estimated from a general linear model
  3. EAR is estimated average requirement
  4. ORs is odds ratios
  5. Intake data were log-transformed to follow a normal distribution
  6. For repeated measures analyses from birth to 6 months, mixed models (when the dependent variables are continuous) and general estimating equation models (when dependent variables are categorical) were used
  7. aAdjusted for maternal age, pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), urinary cotinine level (log-transformed), infant gender, gestational age at delivery, use of supplements, residential area, parity, father’s height, energy intake (log-transformed) at birth; additionally, adjusted for breastfeeding status at 6 months
  8. bAdjusted for maternal age, pre-pregnancy BMI, urinary cotinine level (log-transformed), infant gender, gestational age at delivery, use of supplements, residential area, parity, father’s height, energy intake (log-transformed), vitamin E intake (log-transformed), β-carotene intake (log-transformed) at birth; additionally, adjusted for breastfeeding status at 6 months