From: Fast food fever: reviewing the impacts of the Western diet on immunity
Macronutrient | Immunologic impact | In vitro evidence | Animal models | Human evidence | Reviews |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Simple sugars | - Reduced phagocytosis | 24 | — | 25, 94–95, 100, 101, 102 | 92, 103, 104 |
- Increased inflammatory cytokines production | |||||
- Dysbiosis | |||||
Complex sugars | - Reduced inflammatory cytokine production | 27 | 33 | 27, 28, 29–30, 31 | 26, 32 |
- As part of intact food substance, may reduce risk of certain diseases | |||||
- Reduced dysbiosis | |||||
Artificial sweeteners | - Mostly unknown or unproven | 36-37, 104-107 | 35, 40 | 34 | — |
- Potential contributor to inflammatory bowel disease | |||||
- Stevioside may enhance phagocytosis and T/B-cell mitogen responses | |||||
Salt | - May increase IL-17 and worsen autoimmune disorders | — | 41-42 | — | — |
Saturated fat | - Alterations in prostaglandin pathway and antioxidant mechanisms | 45, 47–49, 59, 61–62, 161-163 | 50-52, 55, 60 | 54, 56, 57–58, 164 | 43-44, 53, 63 |
- TLR2, and TLR4 activation; CD14 alterations | |||||
- Increase gut inflammation and reduce gut barrier function | |||||
- Worse outcomes in sepsis; Increased risk of autoimmunity, allergy, certain neoplasms | |||||
- Dysbiosis | |||||
Trans fat | - Mostly unknown | — | — | — | 64 |
- Increased IL-6 and CRP levels | |||||
Omega-6 fatty acids | - Increased inflammation via TLR4 activation | 67 | 52, 66 | 65, 68 | 53, 64 |
- Dysbiosis | |||||
Omega-3 fatty acids | - Reduced inflammatory cytokines and transcription factors | 48, 74 | 80-82, 136 | 75-77 | 63, 72–73, 79 |
- Increased resolvin and protecin production | |||||
- Increased IL-10 | |||||
Gluten | - Possible TLR4 activation; studies limited to animal models | 83 | 83 | 84-87 | 88-89 |
- Induction of Celiac symptoms in patients with HLA-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8 | |||||
Red meat | - Mostly unproven; studies limited to animal models | — | 145 | 142, 147 | 64, 149 |
- Increased endothelial inflammatory, activation of foam-cell macrophages | |||||
Genetic modification | - Mostly unknown | 209-211 | 212-218 | 202, 207, 219 | — |
- Reduction vitamin A or calorie deficiency depending on modification/location of deployment | |||||
- No apparent impact on allergic disease | |||||
- Increased exposure to pesticides | |||||
- Potential for transmission of functional genes into small bowel bacteria | |||||
Pathologic disorder | Effect on nutrition and/or immunity | In vitro evidence | Animal models | Human evidence | Reviews |
Obesity | - Increased inflammatory cytokines, immunologic tolerance to inflammatory cytokines | 12 | 19 | 11, 13–15, 16–18, 21, 169-171 | 7, 20, 149 |
- Reduced leukocyte numbers and function | |||||
- Reduced control of infection, heightened rates of certain neoplasms | |||||
- Overproduction and eventual tolerance of leptin | |||||
- Dysbiosis | |||||
Anorexia and bulimia | - Reduced monocyte, neutrophil, and T-cell numbers and function | — | — | 22 | 23 |
- Reduced complement function | |||||
- Any disorders related to micronutrient disorders | |||||
Dysbiosis | - Maternal transmission leading to immune alterations in the offspring | 47, 96–98, 104–107, 198-199 | 52, 93, 111, 139, 144, 196 | 94-95, 100, 101, 102, 109, 110, 116, 131–135, 138, 141–143, 197 | 91-92, 99, 103 |
- Epigenetic changes altering offspring immunity via paternal inheritance | |||||
- Reduced regulatory T cell numbers | |||||
- Worse outcomes in sepsis; Increased risk of autoimmunity and allergy | |||||
- May increase likelihood of obesity | |||||
- May increase risk of certain neoplasms | |||||
Chronic inflammation | - Reduced appetite and weight loss | — | — | 155 | 2 |
- May increase risk of certain neoplasms | |||||
Food allergy | - Avoidance diets predisposing to deficiency in calcium and omega-3 | — | — | 222, 223, 224, 226 | — |