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Table 1 Summary of the immune impacts of dietary components and the nutritional impacts of various disease states

From: Fast food fever: reviewing the impacts of the Western diet on immunity

Macronutrient

Immunologic impact

In vitro evidence

Animal models

Human evidence

Reviews

Simple sugars

- Reduced phagocytosis

24

—

25, 94–95, 100, 101, 102

92, 103, 104

- Increased inflammatory cytokines production

- Dysbiosis

Complex sugars

- Reduced inflammatory cytokine production

27

33

27, 28, 29–30, 31

26, 32

- As part of intact food substance, may reduce risk of certain diseases

- Reduced dysbiosis

Artificial sweeteners

- Mostly unknown or unproven

36-37, 104-107

35, 40

34

—

- Potential contributor to inflammatory bowel disease

- Stevioside may enhance phagocytosis and T/B-cell mitogen responses

Salt

- May increase IL-17 and worsen autoimmune disorders

—

41-42

—

—

Saturated fat

- Alterations in prostaglandin pathway and antioxidant mechanisms

45, 47–49, 59, 61–62, 161-163

50-52, 55, 60

54, 56, 57–58, 164

43-44, 53, 63

- TLR2, and TLR4 activation; CD14 alterations

- Increase gut inflammation and reduce gut barrier function

- Worse outcomes in sepsis; Increased risk of autoimmunity, allergy, certain neoplasms

- Dysbiosis

Trans fat

- Mostly unknown

—

—

—

64

- Increased IL-6 and CRP levels

Omega-6 fatty acids

- Increased inflammation via TLR4 activation

67

52, 66

65, 68

53, 64

- Dysbiosis

Omega-3 fatty acids

- Reduced inflammatory cytokines and transcription factors

48, 74

80-82, 136

75-77

63, 72–73, 79

- Increased resolvin and protecin production

- Increased IL-10

Gluten

- Possible TLR4 activation; studies limited to animal models

83

83

84-87

88-89

- Induction of Celiac symptoms in patients with HLA-DQ2 or HLA-DQ8

Red meat

- Mostly unproven; studies limited to animal models

—

145

142, 147

64, 149

- Increased endothelial inflammatory, activation of foam-cell macrophages

Genetic modification

- Mostly unknown

209-211

212-218

202, 207, 219

—

- Reduction vitamin A or calorie deficiency depending on modification/location of deployment

- No apparent impact on allergic disease

- Increased exposure to pesticides

- Potential for transmission of functional genes into small bowel bacteria

Pathologic disorder

Effect on nutrition and/or immunity

In vitro evidence

Animal models

Human evidence

Reviews

Obesity

- Increased inflammatory cytokines, immunologic tolerance to inflammatory cytokines

12

19

11, 13–15, 16–18, 21, 169-171

7, 20, 149

- Reduced leukocyte numbers and function

- Reduced control of infection, heightened rates of certain neoplasms

- Overproduction and eventual tolerance of leptin

- Dysbiosis

Anorexia and bulimia

- Reduced monocyte, neutrophil, and T-cell numbers and function

—

—

22

23

- Reduced complement function

- Any disorders related to micronutrient disorders

Dysbiosis

- Maternal transmission leading to immune alterations in the offspring

47, 96–98, 104–107, 198-199

52, 93, 111, 139, 144, 196

94-95, 100, 101, 102, 109, 110, 116, 131–135, 138, 141–143, 197

91-92, 99, 103

- Epigenetic changes altering offspring immunity via paternal inheritance

- Reduced regulatory T cell numbers

- Worse outcomes in sepsis; Increased risk of autoimmunity and allergy

- May increase likelihood of obesity

- May increase risk of certain neoplasms

Chronic inflammation

- Reduced appetite and weight loss

—

—

155

2

- May increase risk of certain neoplasms

Food allergy

- Avoidance diets predisposing to deficiency in calcium and omega-3

—

—

222, 223, 224, 226

—

  1. Citations are organized by the primary models used in the research, cell culture (In vitro), animal, or direct human effects. For studies involving human data: further notation indicates cross-sectional studies (standard font); longitudinal study designs both prospective or retrospective or reviews discussing longitudinal evidence (italic font); or interventional trials or reviews discussing intervention studies (bold font). The citations provided are not meant to be all-inclusive and thus additional cited reviews of note are also provided; no additional annotation is provided in the review article column.